This is EM Cases Episode 119 – Trauma, The First and Last 15 Minutes, Part 2 with Dr. Kylie Booth, Dr. Chris Hicks and Dr. Andrew Petrosoniak.
In this podcast we answer questions such as: What should your resuscitation targets be in the first 15 minutes for trauma patients with hemorrhagic shock, neurogenic shock, severe head injury? When is a pelvic binder indicated? Is a bedsheet good enough? What are the most common pitfalls in binding the pelvis? What are the best ways to maintain team situational awareness during a trauma resuscitation? Should we rethink patient positioning for the trauma patient? What are the indications for transport to a trauma center? What is the minimal data set required before transfer? Which patients require a pelvic x-ray prior to transfer to a trauma center? What are the key elements of a transport checklist? What does the future hold for trauma care and many more…
Podcast production, sound design & editing by Anton Helman, Voice editing by Suchetta Sinha
Written Summary and blog post by Anton Helman January, 2019
Cite this podcast as: Helman, A. Bosman, K. Hicks, C. Petrosoniak, A. Trauma – The First and Last 15 Minutes Part 2. Emergency Medicine Cases. January, 2019. https://emergencymedicinecases.com/trauma-first-last-15-minutes-part-2. Accessed [date].
Binding the Pelvis in Trauma: The Trochanteric Binder
One important source of massive hemorrhage besides abdominal visceral organ damage and long bone fractures in trauma is the venous hemorrhage as a result of an unstable pelvic fracture. Consider laying out the pelvic binder on the stretcher in advance of patient arrival, and empiric early binding of the pelvis for patients with evidence of shock. Our experts consider it acceptable to bypass examining the pelvis bone and simply bind the pelvis on speculation. X-rays can be done after the binder has been placed. The phrase “pelvic binder” is misleading because the device is ideally placed around the greater trochanters, not the pelvis.
Consider a rectal and genital exam to assess for bleeding and bone shards that suggest an open pelvic fracture before placing the pelvic binder as this may guide antibiotic therapy and surgical priorities. A study in 2001 showed that the rectal exam influenced management in only 1.2% of cases. While the rectal exam is no longer recommended to assess for “high riding prostate” there are 3 situations where a rectal exam is warranted: spinal cord injury (to assess for sacral sparing), pelvic fracture (to assess for open fracture) and penetrating abdominal trauma (to assess for gross blood).
Do’s and Don’ts of Binding the Pelvis
If you choose to examine the pelvic bone, do not place outward pressure or assess for vertical instability. Do not rock the pelvis. Rather, do apply inward pressure on the iliac wings to assess for movement. If there is movement, do maintain the inward pressure immediately followed by application of the binder.
When applying the trochanteric binder, do not apply the binder over the iliac crests. Do place the binder over the greater trochanters. Do place the legs in internal rotation and tape them together at the ankles. This will decrease the anatomic bleed space. Do obtain a post reduction x-ray if time permits.
If a commercial pelvic binder is not available, it is important to apply a bedsheet properly. The force required to close an open book pelvic fracture cannot be attained by twisting a bedsheet and tying it in a knot across the pelvis. Rather, fold the sheet so that is about 18 inches wide, have one team member hold the sheet that has been wrapped around the contralateral trochanter at the ipsilateral trochanter while another team member secures the sheet at the other trochanter with towel clips (see image below). With this technique there is no convincing evidence that commercial pelvic binders are more effective at binding the pelvis than a bedsheet.
Learn more about pelvic binder and fracture tips in EM Quick Hits 30 (skip to 18:54)
Keeping track of your trauma resuscitation progress
Three techniques that help to maintain team situational awareness and keep track of your progress in a trauma resuscitation are:
- The tactical pause/periodic situation report – approximately every 5-10 minutes, team leader vocalizes what has been accomplished thus far and what actions still need to be accomplished and in what order, articulating priorities and seeking input from the team.
- Write down a brief patient history, vital signs and list of confirmed and suspected injuries on a whiteboard in the trauma bay so that any team member joining in can be directed to read it, rather than the team leader needing to re-explain the details for every new person who joins the team.
- Activate a digital stopwatch that the entire team can see.
Resuscitation targets in the first 15 minutes of trauma resuscitation
There are two targets to be considered in early trauma trauma resuscitation presumed to be caused by hemorrhagic shock:
- Adequate tissue perfusion – presence of peripheral pulses in the blunt trauma patient, central pulses in the penetrating trauma patient and mentation in the absence of major head injury.
- Adequate hemostasis
While there are no evidence-based absolute BP targets in early trauma resuscitation that can be applied to all trauma patients, a reasonable guide is the following:
Presumed hemorrhagic shock: Systolic BP ≥ 70 mmHg
Presumed neurogenic shock: MAP ≥ 80-90 mmHg
Shock in the severe head injured patient (GCS < 8, lateralizing findings, depressed skull fracture): MAP ≥80 mmHg
There is an association between hypotension and worse outcomes in patients with severe head injury. It is reasonable to avoid hypotension in severely head injured patients, however there is no convincing evidence that this improves outcomes. Hypoxemia and hypercarbia should also generally be avoided in the patient with severe head injury.
Vasopressors are only indicated in presumed neurogenic shock in the setting of trauma. Norepinephrine is the vasopressor of choice based on current guidelines.
When two or more of these causes of shock are identified, our experts recommend targeting the one that is the more immediate threat to life.
Airway considerations in trauma the first 15 minutes
The concept of resequencing the trauma resuscitation was discussed in Part 1. Aside from critical airway compromise (critical/refractory hypoxia – <90% oxygen saturation despite maximal noninvasive ventilation OR dynamic airway – anticipate evolving disruption of airway, head/neck injuries that are expected to worsen over the next few minutes), circulation should take priority over airway. Endotracheal intubation can usually be delayed until adequate hemodynamic resuscitation has occurred.
Because our early resuscitation targets often involve low blood pressures, and because some trauma patients are “sympathetically deplete” usual doses of induction agents may precipitate post intubation hypotension and cardiac arrest. It is thus recommended by our experts to lower the induction agent dose by 50-75% of the usual RSI induction agent dose for all patients with a shock index of ≥ 1, even when using ketamine. A higher paralytic dose is recommended because the drug may not circulate as readily in the shocked patient.
Patient positioning in trauma: Avoid laying flat throughout the resuscitation
Consider placing the trauma patient in reverse Trendelenburg immediately after the FAST exam to maximize respiratory physiology and CNS physiology, especially for the high BMI patient and/or the severely head injured patient.
If a patient is more comfortable sitting up and/or refuses to lay flat, consider maintaining them in the sitting up position rather than laying them flat throughout the resuscitation. Forcing a patient to lay flat who is more comfortable sitting up may precipitate airway compromise.
Breathing considerations in trauma the first 15 minutes
Consider bilateral finger thoracostomies in the 5th intercostal space (approximately the level of the nipple) just anterior to the mid-axillary line in any trauma patient with unexplained shock and suspected chest injury.
For video by Cliff Reid on finger thoracostomy see EMcrit episode 62
Trauma – The Last 15 Minutes: Preparation for Transport to a Trauma Center
Indications for transport to a trauma center
Any time your patient outstrips your ability to take care of a trauma patient, consider transport to a trauma center. This decision has regional variation and depends on several factors:
- Patient physiological factors including current and anticipated hemodynamic status, age, anticoagulation, immunosuppression, pregnancy, hypothermia, GCS < 10
- Patient anatomical factors including suspected spinal cord injury with paraplegia or quadriplegia, severe head injury, amputation above the wrist or ankle, unstable pelvic fractures, major crush or vascular injury, trauma with significant burn or inhalation injury, significant injuries involving two or more body systems (eg. abdominal and head injury)
- Surgical/procedural capabilities of the sending institution
- Transport logistics (distance, weather, expertise of transport team etc)
Minimal workup prior to transfer to a trauma center
Consider whether each test prior to transfer will change your management or management immediately upon arrival to the trauma center. The minimal data set should include:
- POCUS FAST +/- extended FAST exam
- CXR
- Pelvis x-ray (may help determine need for angiography which often takes time to arrange)
- Trauma blood work drawn (usually includes CBC, lactate, VBG, fibrinogen, liver enzymes, BhCG, INR/PTT); note that there is no standard trauma blood panel and regional variation exists
There is little role for CT imaging prior to transport to a trauma center. CT imaging done prior to transport will often be duplicated at the trauma center and may cause delays to definite care. Nonetheless, there are some situations (eg. low suspicion for serious injury so that if the CT is negative transport would not be necessary) when it is reasonable to do CT imaging locally. This should be discussed with the trauma center.
Transport checklist (ABCDEFGHIJKLMN)
Adapted from: Mattu A. Damage Control: Advances in Trauma Resuscitation. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2018;36(1):xv-xvi.
Airway: Secured endotracheal tube verified on CXR
Breathing: Oxygen saturation +/- ETCO2, chest tube(s) functioning and secured
Circulation: Documentation of serial BP and HR, timing of tourniquets, volume/type blood products given, pelvic binder for suspected or confirmed pelvic injury
Disability: Documentation of serial GCS or AVPU, neurologic exam prior to paralysis, timing of paralytic
Exposure: Splint fractures, dress wounds, then cover patient and keep them dry
Fluids: Measure urine output, chest tube output, IV fluids given
Gut: NG tube placed and confirmed
Heme: Tranexamic acid or prothrombin complex concentrates given, INR drawn
Infusions: Sedation and analgesia
JVP: Signs of tension pneumothorax/tamponade
Kelvin: Initial and current temperature. Keep patient warm.
Lines: Two lines minimum, check all lines (IV, IO, foley, chest tubes)
Micro: antibiotics and tetanus as needed
Next of Kin: Family made aware of plan, contact information documented
Learn more about preparing for trauma in Episode 118: Trauma- The First and Last 15 Minutes Part 1
References
- Mattu A. Damage Control: Advances in Trauma Resuscitation. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2018;36(1):xv-xvi.
- Brohi, K. The Ideal Pelvic Binder. Trauma.org. http://www.trauma.org/index.php/main/article/657/. Accessed Aug 2018.
- Fiechti JF, Gibbs, MA. An Evidence-Based Approach To Managing Injuries Of The Pelvis And Hip In The Emergency Department. EBMedicine.net. December 2010 Volume 12, Number 12.
- Petrosoniak A, Hicks C. Resuscitation Resequenced: A Rational Approach to Patients with Trauma in Shock. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2018;36(1):41-60.
- Schreiber MA, Meier EN, Tisherman SA, Kerby JD, Newgard CD, Brasel K, Egan D, Witham W, Williams C, Daya M, Beeson J, McCully BH, Wheeler S, Kannas D, May S, McKnight B, Hoyt DB; ROC Investigators. A Controlled Resuscitation Strategy is Feasible and Safe in Hypotensive Trauma Patients: Results of a Prospective Randomized Pilot Trial. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. Apr 2015;78(4):687-95.
- Consequences of increased use of computed tomography imaging for trauma patients in rural referring hospitals prior to transfer to a regional trauma centre. Injury 45:835-839, 2014.
- Unnecessary imaging, not hospital distance, or transportation mode impacts delays in the transfer of injured children. Pediatric Emerg Care 26(7):481-486, 2010.
- Rate and Reasons for Repeat CT Scanning in Transferred Trauma Patients. Am Surg 83(5):465-569, 2017.
- Petrosoniak, A. Hicks, C. Beyond crisis resource management: new frontiers in human factors training for acute care medicine. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2013 Dec;26(6):699-706.
- Kaufman EJ, Richmond TS, Wiebe DJ, Jacoby SF, Holena DN. Patient Experiences of Trauma Resuscitation. JAMA Surg. 2017;152(9):843-850.
Drs. Helman, Booth, Hicks and Petrosoniak have no conflicts of interest to declare
Now test your knowledge with a quiz.
Hello Anton,
I came across this article suggesting that the type of pelvic fracture may be important in determining whether a pelvic binder will help:
https://careflightcollective.com/2014/09/03/the-bind-about-pelvic-binders-part-2/
I wondered what your thoughts were?
Thanks for the great article. Makes sense to bind all AP compression fractures and think twice about lateral ones. However, if the patient is shocked and no other source of bleeding is identified, I would still suggest binding the pelvis regardless of type, especially early in resuscitation when you might not have an x-ray yet. This also is a good reminder to check a post reduction film as soon as possible. If you do bind a lateral compression fracture and pelvic volume is increased by it, you’ll see it on post reduction and make the necessary adjustments. So bottom line is, if sick with no other source of bleeding, bind and get a post reduction x-ray ASAP. If they aren’t sick, you have time – get an x-ray, if AP fracture, bind. If lateral compression and you suspect a big bleed, still attempt binder with post reduction film at the bedside, and then get them to angio ASAP.
With respect I have to disagree with Anton. It’s not just that binding a lateral or a vertical shear fracture will increase the pelvic space, it may actually further displace the fragments and cause new vascular injury therefore worsening the bleed. I would say if the mechanism of injury suggests lateral or vertical force, first get the plain x-ray!
I loved the episode and only wish that all my past interns and even attendings could be forced to hear it over and over again. But I had a few points to add:
1) Regarding the patient showing initial signs of hemorrhagic shock when blood and blood products are not ready, I think one point was overlooked: the role of vasoconstrictors (Norepinephrine and Desmopressin). Studies have shown (admittedly mostly animal studies) that vasoconstrictors can be used to maintain critical tissue perfusion (or a target BP) while restricting use of harmful crystalloids. This is actually advocated in the European guidelines for treatment of hemorrhage. (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4828865/). The old dogma of just treating hypovolemic shock with volume overlooks the fact that many severely injured patients may be experiencing an inflammatory shock due to massive tissue damage alongside blood loss. And this aspect can be exacerbated by crystalloids, or treated by vasoconstrictors while awaiting blood products.
2) Regarding activation of MTPs, although I agree that many of the studies are flawed by the definition of massive transfusion, there are actually respectable publications which have tried to recognized patients at risk of massive transfusions or at least traumatic coagulopathy within the first few minutes of assessing a patient (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16766965, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20735809). Also I think ROTEM didn’t receive the attention it deserved in this capacity. With new fully automated kits giving you a full panel of EXTEM, INTEM, FIBTEM, and APTEM within minutes at a cost of around 200$, they are bound to find their way to every major trauma bay soon.
3) My third point is actually a question regarding pelvic binders. I had been taught (and believed to be true) that applying a pelvic binder to a vertical shear fracture may actually worsen bleeding. Pelvic binders are meant to “close” open pelvic fractures. Therefore I don’t think applying a binder to any and all pelvic fractures is a wise recommendation. Please correct me if I’m wrong.
part 2 excellently complements part 1, with review of pertinent points of 1. excellent discussion by all.
thank you.
i currently work in a very rural , but large, community hospital in the central valley of california. no trauma service. (as, i am learning, is much of canada.) so all these considerations discussed in these pods are exceedingly helpful.
thanks.
tom fiero